ESTIMATION PROCEDURE:LINGUISTIC CULTURES

 

All of the statistics reported are estimates. The procedure used to generate these estimates involved the following steps:

 

      Country Census: First, an exhaustive list of nations, dependencies, and territories was created in order to include all populated areas of the world; these will be referred to as countries, as listed in Appendix B. Total population estimates were obtained for each of these countries. When population estimates across published sources were not consistent (e.g. for the year 1994) or were unavailable, best estimates were obtained via extrapolation from previous years, or from non-published sources (e.g. governmental authorities). Population estimates across countries, in 1994, are given in Appendix B.

 

      Language Group Identification: Second, for each of the 234 countries listed in Appendix B, detailed population statistics broken down by language groups were collected from various national and international sources. Inconsistencies which exist across sources include estimates of a given language group's population (usually reported as a percent of the total population), the number of language groups present, the identity of language groups present, or the time period when such estimates are generated. Such inconsistencies were dealt with by (1) setting a target date of mid-1994 for population estimation, and (2) combining estimates across sources while giving more weight to more recent and complete sources. In virtually all cases, this procedure results in original estimates of language group representation within each of the countries present, and, to my knowledge, the most complete enumeration of linguistic representation for the world's population. Not all languages are, however, represented in official statistics as these may represent too small a percentage (e.g. the Navaho language), or are simply unknown with any measure of accuracy. In these cases, a group called “other” has been created for each country. This percent, by country, is reported in Appendix B. Given the existence of this “other” category, the reader should understand that the statistics reported for a given linguistic group represent estimates where that group represents enough of a population to be considered a substantial member of the country’s social fabric. Appendix A lists the linguistic groups covered, and their populations across countries, as estimated for mid-year 1994. Appendix A provides, therefore, the specific working definition of a particular linguistic group used. Appendix C lists a number of references used to identify and quantify linguistic groups across countries. It should be noted that the working definition of a language or linguistic group has various limitations for certain types of research. A number of scholarly works in linguistics note that languages are often difficult to separate into clean groupings. A rather pragmatic approach was used to overcome this problem: the groupings reported by national and international sources are used. This causes, for example, the language Walloon to be considered separately from the French language, though some linguists would consider these to be identical at a certain level. As the estimates reported are at a certain level of detail using the procedure described above, the reader may be best served by combining estimates across certain groups reported here.

 

      Variable Estimates Across Countries: Third, for each of the variables reported, data were collected at the national level for as many countries as possible. For most of the geographic variables, relatively precise measures were available for all countries of the world (e.g. land areas). For many variables in which cover more endogenous social and economic dimensions, as complete an enumeration as possible was conducted by combining various sources, listed in the bibliography. Each database reports the number of countries included within the estimation; the higher the number, the more complete the estimate. For many variables, estimates are incomplete by either not existing at all for a given linguistic group or for only a limited number of countries having the group present. As such, for those variables having least cross-country representation, the appropriate caveat should be emphasized. . The national estimates are provided in Parker, National Cultures: A Statistical Reference, Greenwood Press.

 

      Estimates Across Linguistic Groups: Fourth, given the preceding steps, estimates of variables for a given linguistic group are obtained using an appropriate weighting scheme. This involves first calculating the total population of a given linguistic group, then calculating the percent of that linguistic group residing in every country of the world (in most cases this is equal to zero as most languages are spoken as a mother tongue, and exist to a substantial degree, in only a few countries). A given variable is calculated, for a given linguistic group, as a weighted average across countries using these percentages as weights. All figures are reported to the third significant digit. Given this methodology, researchers must recognize certain limitations which, though many can be mitigated, merit great attention.

 

Finally, it should also be understood that errors are bound to have occurred during the estimation procedure (though great pains were taken to proof-read and cross-validate the input and output statistics). Given the original nature of all of the statistics reported, they should be seen, therefore, as “first generation” estimates which may require external validation (especially if the user is focusing on one particular linguistic group).

 

INTERPRETING ESTIMATES AND THEIR LIMITATIONS

 

Given the above outlined methodology with its caveats, the reader is free to interpret the statistics given that due caution is exercised. The most important problem in interpreting the estimates is the fact they are calculated based on country-level statistics, many of which are (1) themselves estimates, and (2) of unknown or possibly skewed distribution within each country. The first issue is a general problem of all cross-cultural research, including those using national definitions of culture. One can better grasp the distribution issue by distinguishing between two types of estimates: (1) exact estimates, and (2) environmental estimates. The former estimates are not affected by the distribution issue, while the later acknowledge this issue, and are most valid under certain conditions (mostly relating to how the estimates are interpreted or used in subsequent analyses). Exact estimates are those which, at the country level, have a uniform distribution across all members of each country where the linguistic group resides. An example of such a variable is “does a country live under a dictatorship (1=yes)”. In this case, the distribution across individuals is generally uniform and the estimate provided across linguistic groups reflects the exact estimate for that group (given the steps outlined above and their additional caveats). Environmental estimates, on the other hand, measure the conditions under which a given group resides. The estimate for income per capita, for example, is not the exact measure of income per capita for persons in that group. Rather, the estimate indicates that persons in a linguistic group live in societies with the estimated income level. This is true since income may not be uniformly distributed across language groups within a given country. Some language groups may be poorer than the average, while others will be more wealthy than the average. Environmental estimates are most useful when researchers are interested in understanding how the social environment affects the behavior of a given linguistic culture (e.g. as these are exposed to societies having an average level of income, and other forces associated with such a level). Seen in this light, all exact estimates are environmental estimates, yet not all environmental estimates are exact estimates. Most of the geographic variables given are exact estimates as these measure the existence of (and not the consumption or ownership of ) natural or cultural resources (and are exogenous variables), while most of the economic and social variables are environmental (e.g. and are endogenous variables).

 

When and how can environmental estimates be used as proxies for exact estimates? In many cross-cultural studies, researchers are content to use national-level averages (e.g. income per capita) as these represent reasonable proxies for average behavior (even though distributions within each may be skewed). This becomes less of an issue as the number of countries studied increases. So too might researchers use the environmental estimates reported as exact estimates, though the rationale behind this is slightly different. In our case, environmental variables might be reasonable proxies if the research seeks to explain variances across a large number of groups (e.g. 300 languages) by assuming that biases which tend to over- or under-estimate a behavior will be randomly distributed across groups and, in the aggregate, be offsetting if a large number of groups are investigated simultaneously. A similar argument might be made for those groups which are located in a large number of countries (reported in Appendix A). If biases can be assumed inversely related to the number of countries where a language group is represented, then environmental variables may be reasonable proxies for exact estimates if the study is limited to those groups existing across numerous countries. Additionally, one can attempt to control for biases if these are hypothesized to be based on the extent, say, to which a group is, on average, represented within countries as a minority or a majority; other relevant covariates might also be considered. Finally, environmental estimates might be used as proxies for exact estimates if the researcher has prior knowledge of underlying distributions, the linguistic groups themselves, and the variable in question that would suggest that biases are minimal. For example, environmental variables may be deemed to be reasonable exact estimates (i.e. good enough “ball parks”) in cases when their distributions overlap, in their absolute levels, to a minimal degree across groups. Consider, for example, the following comparison of language groups and their estimated levels of income per capita:

 

Language Group	Income per Capita	Countries Covered
Finnish	$25,000	Canada, Sweden, Finland
Georgian	$4,500	Georgia
Gen-Gbe	$350	Togo
Hausa	$450	Chad, Niger, Nigeria
Hmong	$550	Laos
Kuna	$1450	Panama
Japanese	$31,000	Guam, Marshall Islands,
		Canada, USA, Japan
Javanese	$200	Indonesia

 

Clearly, the orders-of-magnitude differences observed across linguistic groups in income per capita, for example, allow us to make reasonable conclusions about the relative incomes of these groups and/or analyze these estimates as a dependent variable, despite there being room to improve the estimates by relying on thorough within-country surveys (which are generally not available or incomplete in most countries of the world). As such, even for the environmental variables in which are economic or social, many of the statistics reported often reflect the “best available” exact estimates to date. Finally, it should be noted that only those language groups and populations which are substantially represented within each country are used (thus eliminating small languages). As such, the groups ultimately reported are likely to have behaviors reasonably close to average behaviors within the countries where the estimates are derived. Their aggregation, as described above, would tend to reflect this characteristic (i.e. many environmental estimates are reasonable proxies for exact estimates).

 

ESTIMATION TIMING

 

The statistics reported are based on the best estimates available during the calendar year 1994. However, in many respects, this timing should not be over emphasized . Rather the estimates should be seen as covering the linguistic groups during the period of the “early 1990s”, or, especially in cases for variables reported for economics and demography, the “later part of the 20th century”. This perspective is motivated by the fact that data are often inconsistent across sources, or irregular in their availability for 1994 and were extrapolated. By combining various sources and extrapolating, the integrity of the variables was not compromised, though their exact timing (i.e. as required in time series analysis) is not exact. In cases when the variables do not reflect 1994 estimates, these are noted.

 

Appendix A

Linguistic Groups Across Countries

 

This appendix lists the linguistic groups covered in their order of appearance in the comparative tables. Total populations included in the estimation procedures are reported in thousands and are rounded. In some cases “official” or “commercial” linguistic groups are estimated given their role in the world economy, or their importance in better understanding a given group. Due to space limitations, the titles in the comparative tables are abbreviations for the language groups listed here. Countries are given in an order increasing in their absolute population of the linguistic group concerned (e.g. most speakers of Afar live in Djibouti).

 

Abkhaz, Georgia. Total population covered= 110.

Achenese, Indonesia. Total population covered= 1946.

Acholi, Uganda. Total population covered= 770.

Adangme, Ghana. Total population covered= 494.

Afar, Eritrea, Djibouti. Total population covered= 324.

Afrikaans, Namibia, South Africa. Total population covered= 6551.

Aja-Gbe, Togo, Benin. Total population covered= 596.

Akan, Ivory Coast, Ghana. Total population covered= 12741.

Albanian, Greece, Macedonia, Serbia & Montenegro, Albania. Total population covered= 4312.

Amerindian, French Guiana, Canada, Venezuela, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico. Total population covered= 7648.

Amharic, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 16407.

Amharic Official, Eritrea, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 56408.

Angaur, Pacific Islands Trust. Total population covered= 6.

Arabic, Gibraltar, Canada, Djibouti, Somalia, Mali, Eritrea, Western Sahara, Qatar, United States, Bahrain, Iran, Gaza Strip, United Arab Emirates, Israel, Oman, West Bank, France, Kuwait, Mauritania, Chad, Lebanon, Jordan, Libya, Tunisia, Yemen, Syrian Arab Republic, Sudan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Algeria, Egypt. Total population covered= 199733.

Arabic Commercial, Western Sahara, Qatar, Djibouti, Bahrain, Comoros, Gaza Strip, West Bank, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Mauritania, Lebanon, Eritrea, Jordan, Libya, Israel, Chad, Tunisia, Somalia, Yemen, Syrian Arab Republic, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Morocco, Sudan, Ethiopia, Egypt. Total population covered= 283974.

Arabic Official, Western Sahara, Qatar, Djibouti, Bahrain, Comoros, Gaza Strip, West Bank, Oman, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Mauritania, Lebanon, Jordan, Libya, Israel, Chad, Tunisia, Somalia, Yemen, Syrian Arab Republic, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Morocco, Algeria, Sudan, Egypt. Total population covered= 254674.

Armenian, Canada, Lebanon, Georgia, Syrian Arab Republic, Azerbaijan, Iran, Armenia. Total population covered= 5277.

Assamese, Bangladesh, India. Total population covered= 15568.

Assyrian, Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq. Total population covered= 337.

Austral, French Polynesia. Total population covered= 11.

Awadhi, Nepal. Total population covered= 992.

Ayizo-Gbe, Benin. Total population covered= 405.

Aymara, Peru, Bolivia. Total population covered= 2571.

Azerbaijani, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran. Total population covered= 16659.

Balanta, Guinea-Bissau. Total population covered= 308.

Balinese, Indonesia. Total population covered= 3893.

Baluchi, United Arab Emirates, Afghanistan, Oman, Iran, Pakistan. Total population covered= 5729.

Bambara, Mali. Total population covered= 3850.

Bamun, Cameroon. Total population covered= 251.

Banda, Central African Republic. Total population covered= 1538.

Bariba, Benin. Total population covered= 659.

Basaa, Cameroon. Total population covered= 251.

Basare, Togo. Total population covered= 117.

Basque, Spain, France. Total population covered= 1941.

Bassa, Liberia. Total population covered= 459.

Batak, Indonesia. Total population covered= 5839.

Beja, Sudan. Total population covered= 1372.

Belorussian, Lithuania, Belarus. Total population covered= 7249.

Bemba, Zambia. Total population covered= 2217.

Bengali, United Arab Emirates, India, Bangladesh. Total population covered= 188022.

Berber, Algeria. Total population covered= 542.

Beti, Cameroon. Total population covered= 1130.

Bhojpuri, Mauritius, Nepal. Total population covered= 1488.

Bikol, Philippines. Total population covered= 3727.

Bislama Official, Vanuatu. Total population covered= 164.

Bissa, Burkina Faso. Total population covered= 489.

Black Caribbean, Honduras. Total population covered= 113.

Bobo-Bwamu, Burkina Faso. Total population covered= 685.

Brahui, Pakistan. Total population covered= 1281.

Brunei, Brunei. Total population covered= 55.

Bubi, Equatorial Guinea. Total population covered= 20.

Buginese, Malaysia. Total population covered= 577.

Bulgarian, Moldova, Bulgaria. Total population covered= 7696.

Buriat, Mongolia. Total population covered= 46.

Burmese, Burma. Total population covered= 30799.

Bwamu, Mali. Total population covered= 203.

Cakchiquel, Guatemala. Total population covered= 601.

Carolinian, Northern Mariana I. Total population covered= 21.

Catalan, Andorra, France, Spain. Total population covered= 8467.

Cebuano, Philippines. Total population covered= 16105.

Chagga, Tanzania. Total population covered= 1151.

Cham, Cambodia. Total population covered= 180.

Chamorro, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam. Total population covered= 93.

Chewa, Mozambique, Malawi. Total population covered= 5831.

Chibchan, Costa Rica. Total population covered= 33.

Chiga, Uganda. Total population covered= 1348.

Chinese, Other, Nauru, Brunei, Canada, Vietnam, Thailand, United States, Indonesia. Total population covered= 7306.

Chinese Mandarin, Singapore, Cambodia, Malaysia, Taiwan, China. Total population covered= 816911.

Chinese Commercial, Mongolia, Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, China. Total population covered= 1292274.

Chinese Gan, China. Total population covered= 24220.

Chinese Hakka, Singapore, Malaysia, Taiwan, China. Total population covered= 39651.

Chinese Min, Singapore, Malaysia, China. Total population covered= 52423.

Chinese Official, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China. Total population covered= 1240567.

Chinese Wu, China. Total population covered= 96881.

Chinese Xiang, China. Total population covered= 48440.

Chinese Yue, Macau, Malaysia, Hong Kong, China. Total population covered= 67713.

Chinese Total, Nauru, Brunei, Canada, Cambodia, Macau, Vietnam, Thailand, United States, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China. Total population covered= 1153544.

Choco, Panama. Total population covered= 26.

Chokwe, Angola. Total population covered= 411.

Chol, Mexico. Total population covered= 126.

Chopi, Mozambique. Total population covered= 798.

Chuvash, Russia. Total population covered= 1491.

Circassian, Jordan. Total population covered= 44.

Creole English, British Virgin Island, Nicaragua, St. Kitts and Nevis, Suriname, Antigua & Barbuda, Costa Rica, Grenada, St. Vincent & the, Belize, Bahamas, Panama, Trinidad & Tobago, Guyana, Jamaica. Total population covered= 4145.

Creole French, Mayotte, Bahamas, Seychelles, Dominica, French Guiana, St. Lucia, Dominican Republic, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Mauritius, Haiti. Total population covered= 8841.

Creole French Official, Seychelles, Mauritius, Haiti. Total population covered= 8098.

Crioulo, Sao Tome E Principe, Cape Verde. Total population covered= 409.

Czech, Canada, Czech Republic. Total population covered= 6895.

Dagaare-Lobi, Burkina Faso. Total population covered= 685.

Dagaare-Wali, Ghana. Total population covered= 659.

Dagbanli, Ghana. Total population covered= 659.

Dan, Liberia. Total population covered= 172.

Danish, Faroe Islands, Greenland, Denmark. Total population covered= 5043.

Dari, Afghanistan. Total population covered= 6347.

Dendi, Benin. Total population covered= 101.

Dinka, Sudan. Total population covered= 2744.

Ditammari, Benin. Total population covered= 253.

Divehi, Maldives. Total population covered= 232.

Dogon, Mali. Total population covered= 507.

Dutch, Canada, Netherlands. Total population covered= 14557.

Dutch Official, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles, Suriname, Belgium, Netherlands. Total population covered= 25986.

Dyerma, Niger. Total population covered= 1797.

Dyola, Senegal. Total population covered= 476.

Dyula-Marka, Burkina Faso. Total population covered= 685.

Dzongkha, Bhutan. Total population covered= 493.

Edo, Nigeria. Total population covered= 2131.

Enga, Papua New Guinea. Total population covered= 209.

English, Niue, Pitcairn Islands, Tokelau, Monaco, Nauru, Seychelles, Cocos (Keeling) Is, Norfolk Island, American Samoa, Kiribati, Falkland Islands, Pacific Islands Trust, Christmas Island, Gibraltar, Marshall Islands, Northern Mariana Islands, Malta, St. Helena, Anguilla, Brunei, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, Turks and Caicos Islands, Namibia, Cook Island, Micronesia Federation, Barbados, Cayman Islands, Guam, Honduras, Bermuda, Isle of Man, Virgin Islands US, Zambia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago, Zimbabwe, New Zealand, Ireland, South Africa, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, United States. Total population covered= 332292.

English Commercial, Pitcairn Islands, Cocos (Keeling) Is, Falkland Islands, Niue, Christmas Island, Tokelau, Norfolk Island, St. Helena, Anguilla, Nauru, Tuvalu, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, British Virgin Island, Pacific Islands Trust, Cook Island, Monaco, Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, St. Kitts and Nevis, Northern Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, American Samoa, Bermuda, Guernsey, Antigua & Barbuda, Isle of Man, Seychelles, Kiribati, Dominica, Jersey, Grenada, Tonga, Micronesia Federation, Virgin Islands US, St. Vincent & the, Guam, St. Lucia, Vanuatu, Netherlands Antilles, Belize, Western Samoa, Maldives, Barbados, Iceland, Bahamas, Brunei, Solomon Islands, Malta, Equatorial Guinea, Suriname, Qatar, Macau, Bahrain, Gaza Strip, Cyprus, Fiji, Guyana, Swaziland, Gambia, Mauritius, Trinidad & Tobago, Botswana, West Bank, Namibia, Bhutan, United Arab Emirates, Lesotho, Kuwait, Slovenia, Jamaica, Panama, Singapore, Liberia, Uruguay, Costa Rica, Ireland, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Nicaragua, Papua New Guinea, Norway, Jordan, Sierra Leone, Croatia, Finland, Libya, Denmark, Israel, Hong Kong, Switzerland, Dominican Republic, Tunisia, Sweden, Zambia, Somalia, Portugal, Belgium, Greece, Hungary, Malawi, Cuba, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, Yemen, Syrian Arab Republic, Chile, Netherlands, Mozambique, Saudi Arabia, Ghana, Australia, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Uganda, Venezuela, Taiwan, Nepal, Kenya, Sudan, Canada, Tanzania, Argentina, Poland, South Africa, South Korea, Burma, Ethiopia, Egypt, Thailand, France, United Kingdom, Italy, Turkey, Iran, Philippines, Vietnam, Germany, Mexico, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Japan, Pakistan, Brazil, Indonesia, United States, India. Total population covered= 3552894.

English Official, Pitcairn Islands, Cocos (Keeling) Is, Falkland Islands, Niue, Christmas Island, Tokelau, Norfolk Island, St. Helena, Anguilla, Tuvalu, Montserrat, Turks and Caicos Islands, British Virgin Island, Pacific Islands Trust, Cook Island, Cayman Islands, Gibraltar, St. Kitts and Nevis, Northern Mariana Islands, Marshall Islands, American Samoa, Bermuda, Guernsey, Antigua & Barbuda, Isle of Man, Seychelles, Dominica, Grenada, Tonga, Micronesia Federation, Virgin Islands US, St. Vincent & the, Guam, St. Lucia, Vanuatu, Belize, Western Samoa, Barbados, Bahamas, Solomon Islands, Malta, Gaza Strip, Fiji, Guyana, Swaziland, Gambia, Mauritius, Trinidad & Tobago, Botswana, West Bank, Namibia, Lesotho, Jamaica, Singapore, Liberia, Ireland, New Zealand, Puerto Rico, Papua New Guinea, Sierra Leone, Hong Kong, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Cameroon, Ghana, Australia, Uganda, Kenya, Canada, Tanzania, South Africa, United Kingdom, Philippines, Nigeria, United States, India. Total population covered= 1654142.

English-Bajan, Barbados. Total population covered= 252.

Estonian, Estonia. Total population covered= 1032.

Ewe, Ghana. Total population covered= 2141.

Ewe-Gbe, Togo. Total population covered= 859.

Fang, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon. Total population covered= 662.

Faroese, Faroe Islands, Denmark. Total population covered= 98.

Farsi, Oman, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Iran. Total population covered= 31937.

Fijian, Fiji. Total population covered= 335.

Finnish, Canada, Sweden, Finland. Total population covered= 4997.

Flemish, Belgium. Total population covered= 5856.

Fong-Be, Togo, Benin. Total population covered= 1357.

French, Wallis and Futuna, Mayotte, Seychelles, Virgin Islands US, Andorra, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Monaco, French Polynesia, Djibouti, Mauritius, New Caledonia, Reunion, Haiti, Gabon, Switzerland, United States, Canada, France. Total population covered= 57807.

French Official, St. Pierre and Miquelon, Wallis and Futuna, Monaco, Seychelles, Jersey, Mayotte, French Guiana, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Martinique, Luxembourg, Guadeloupe, Djibouti, Comoros, Reunion, Guyana, Mauritius, Gabon, Congo, Central African Re, Togo, Benin, Burundi, Chad, Guinea, Switzerland, Haiti, Rwanda, Senegal, Niger, Burkina Faso, Belgium, Mali, Cameroon, Madagascar, Ivory Coast, Canada, Zaire, France. Total population covered= 273993.

Frisian, Netherlands. Total population covered= 765.

Fulani, Benin, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Cameroon, Niger, Mali, Guinea, Nigeria. Total population covered= 16031.

Fur, Sudan. Total population covered= 549.

Ga, Ghana. Total population covered= 494.

Gagauz, Moldova. Total population covered= 131.

Galician, Spain. Total population covered= 2741.

Ganda, Uganda. Total population covered= 3082.

Garifuna, Belize. Total population covered= 14.

Gbaya, Central African Republic. Total population covered= 883.

Gedeo, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 529.

Gen-Gbe, Togo. Total population covered= 234.

Georgian, Georgia. Total population covered= 3785.

German, Marshall Islands, Liechtenstein, Hungary, Paraguay, Namibia, Belgium, Kyrgyzstan, Czech Republic, Romania, Canada, Kazakhstan, France, United States, Switzerland, Austria, Germany. Total population covered= 96296.

German Official, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, Germany. Total population covered= 105723.

Ghomala, Cameroon. Total population covered= 377.

Gilaki, Iran. Total population covered= 2530.

Gogo, Tanzania. Total population covered= 1439.

Gola, Liberia. Total population covered= 144.

Gonja, Ghana. Total population covered= 165.

Gourma, Togo, Burkina Faso. Total population covered= 645.

Grebo-Krahn, Liberia. Total population covered= 431.

Greek, Albania, Canada, United States, Cyprus, Greece. Total population covered= 10870.

Greenlandic, Greenland. Total population covered= 49.

Guaran, Paraguay. Total population covered= 4124.

Guayami, Panama. Total population covered= 51.

Gujarati, India. Total population covered= 43935.

Gun-Gbe, Benin. Total population covered= 608.

Gurage, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 1059.

Gurung, Nepal. Total population covered= 359.

Gusii, Kenya. Total population covered= 1826.

Ha, Tanzania. Total population covered= 863.

Hadiyya, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 1588.

Hausa, Chad, Niger, Nigeria. Total population covered= 26429.

Haya, Tanzania. Total population covered= 1439.

Hebrew, Gibraltar, Isle of Man, Gaza Strip, Canada, West Bank, Israel. Total population covered= 3989.

Hehe, Tanzania. Total population covered= 863.

Herero, Namibia. Total population covered= 110.

Hiligaynon, Philippines. Total population covered= 6123.

Hindi, Trinidad & Tobago, Jamaica, Mauritius, Suriname, Guyana, Fiji, Yemen, India. Total population covered= 253262.

Hindi Official, India. Total population covered= 896624.

Hindko, Pakistan. Total population covered= 2562.

Hmong, Laos. Total population covered= 136.

Hungarian, Canada, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Hungary. Total population covered= 13383.

Ibibo-Efik, Nigeria. Total population covered= 5327.

Icelandic, Iceland. Total population covered= 283.

Idoma, Nigeria. Total population covered= 1065.

Igala, Nigeria. Total population covered= 1065.

Igbo, Nigeria. Total population covered= 18112.

Ijaw, Nigeria. Total population covered= 2131.

Ikiribati, Tuvalu, Nauru, Kiribati. Total population covered= 75.

Ilocano, Philippines. Total population covered= 6855.

Indo-Pakistan, Gibraltar, Canada. Total population covered= 130.

Indochinois, Canada. Total population covered= 45.

Indonesian, Indonesia. Total population covered= 7785.

Irish, Isle of Man, Ireland. Total population covered= 181.

Issa, Djibouti. Total population covered= 234.

Italian, Vatican City, Monaco, Malta, San Marino, Belgium, Australia, Canada, Argentina, Switzerland, United States, Italy. Total population covered= 58317.

Italian Official, Vatican City, San Marino, Switzerland, Italy. Total population covered= 64712.

Japanese, Guam, Marshall Islands, Canada, United States, Japan. Total population covered= 123927.

Javanese, Suriname, Malaysia, Indonesia. Total population covered= 82186.

Jingpo, Burma. Total population covered= 893.

Kabil, Algeria. Total population covered= 2169.

Kabiye, Togo. Total population covered= 508.

Kalenjin, Kenya. Total population covered= 2870.

Kamba, Kenya. Total population covered= 2870.

Kannada, India. Total population covered= 34968.

Kanuri, Chad, Niger, Nigeria. Total population covered= 5066.

Kaonde, Zambia. Total population covered= 266.

Karamojong, Uganda. Total population covered= 385.

Karen, Burma. Total population covered= 4464.

Kasem, Ghana. Total population covered= 165.

Kashmiri-Sindhi, India. Total population covered= 8966.

Kazakh, Turkmenistan, Mongolia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan. Total population covered= 7323.

Kebumtamp, Bhutan. Total population covered= 411.

Kekchi, Belize, Guatemala. Total population covered= 416.

Khmer, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia. Total population covered= 9046.

Khmu, Laos. Total population covered= 362.

Khoisan, Botswana. Total population covered= 81.

Kikuyu, Kenya. Total population covered= 5218.

Kimbundu, Angola. Total population covered= 2263.

Kirghiz Official, Kyrgyzstan. Total population covered= 4567.

Kissi, Sierra Leone, Guinea. Total population covered= 468.

Klao, Liberia. Total population covered= 201.

Kongo, Congo, Angola, Zaire. Total population covered= 4964.

Kono, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 225.

Kordoranian, Sudan. Total population covered= 549.

Korean, Canada, United States, North Korea, South Korea. Total population covered= 68229.

Korean Official, North Korea, South Korea. Total population covered= 67567.

Kosrean, Micronesia Federation. Total population covered= 10.

Kpelle, Guinea, Liberia. Total population covered= 1038.

Krio, Equatorial Guinea, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 130.

Kru, Ivory Coast. Total population covered= 2278.

Kuna, Panama. Total population covered= 51.

Kung, Namibia. Total population covered= 47.

Kuranko, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 180.

Kurdish, Armenia, Syrian Arab Republic, Iraq, Iran, Turkey. Total population covered= 14873.

Kuy, Cambodia. Total population covered= 811.

Kwangali, Namibia. Total population covered= 110.

Kwanyama, Angola, Namibia. Total population covered= 942.

Kwara-ae, Solomon Islands. Total population covered= 27.

Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyzstan. Total population covered= 2192.

Ladin, Italy. Total population covered= 734.

Lama, Togo. Total population covered= 117.

Lango, Uganda. Total population covered= 1156.

Lao, Laos. Total population covered= 3572.

Lapp, Norway. Total population covered= 43.

Latvian, Latvia. Total population covered= 1447.

Latvian Official, Latvia. Total population covered= 2679.

Lau, Solomon Islands. Total population covered= 13.

Lepcha, Bhutan. Total population covered= 16.

Letzeburgish, Luxembourg. Total population covered= 392.

Lezgin, Azerbaijan. Total population covered= 220.

Limba, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 406.

Lingala, Zaire. Total population covered= 824.

Lithuanian, Lithuania. Total population covered= 3026.

Loko, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 135.

Loma, Liberia. Total population covered= 201.

Lomwe, Malawi. Total population covered= 1606.

Lozi, Zambia. Total population covered= 532.

Luba, Zaire. Total population covered= 2883.

Luchazi, Angola. Total population covered= 206.

Lugbara, Uganda. Total population covered= 770.

Luimbi, Angola. Total population covered= 514.

Lunda, Zambia. Total population covered= 266.

Luo, Kenya. Total population covered= 3652.

Luri, Iran. Total population covered= 4427.

Luvale, Zambia, Angola. Total population covered= 589.

Luyia, Kenya. Total population covered= 3391.

Macedonian, Greece, Macedonia. Total population covered= 1598.

Madurese, Indonesia. Total population covered= 9731.

Magar, Nepal. Total population covered= 633.

Maithili, Nepal. Total population covered= 2532.

Makonde, Mozambique, Tanzania. Total population covered= 1311.

Makua, Mozambique. Total population covered= 6065.

Malagasy, Madagascar. Total population covered= 13118.

Malay, Brunei, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia. Total population covered= 22433.

Malay Official, Brunei, Singapore, Malaysia. Total population covered= 22396.

Malayalam, United Arab Emirates, India. Total population covered= 36211.

Maldivian Official, Maldives. Total population covered= 232.

Malinke, Senegal, Ivory Coast. Total population covered= 2248.

Maltese, Malta. Total population covered= 346.

Mam, Guatemala. Total population covered= 400.

Mandinka, Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, Gambia, Senegal. Total population covered= 1061.

Mandyak, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau. Total population covered= 265.

Maninka, Guinea. Total population covered= 1575.

Manja, Central African Republic. Total population covered= 164.

Mankanya, Guinea-Bissau. Total population covered= 31.

Mano, Liberia. Total population covered= 144.

Manx, Norfolk Island, Total population covered= <1.

Manyika, Zimbabwe. Total population covered= 764.

Maori, New Zealand. Total population covered= 105.

Mapudungun, Chile. Total population covered= 553.

Marathi, India. Total population covered= 65454.

Marba, Chad. Total population covered= 120.

Marquesan, French Polynesia. Total population covered= 11.

Marshallese, Marshall Islands. Total population covered= 40.

Mayan, Guatemala. Total population covered= 701.

Mazanderani, Iran. Total population covered= 3162.

Mbere, Congo, Gabon. Total population covered= 361.

Mbosi, Congo. Total population covered= 270.

Mehri, Oman. Total population covered= 101.

Melanesian, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea. Total population covered= 1287.

Mende, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 2737.

Meru, Kenya. Total population covered= 1304.

Minangkabau, Malaysia, Indonesia. Total population covered= 8170.

Miskito, Nicaragua. Total population covered= 166.

Mixteques-Zapoteque, Mexico. Total population covered= 387.

Moba, Togo. Total population covered= 195.

Moldovan, Moldova. Total population covered= 2714.

Mon, Burma. Total population covered= 893.

Mon-Khmer, Burma. Total population covered= 893.

Monegasque, Monaco. Total population covered= 5.

Mongolian, Mongolia. Total population covered= 2085.

Mossi, Burkina Faso. Total population covered= 4697.

Muong, Vietnam. Total population covered= 701.

Myene, Gabon. Total population covered= 63.

Nahautl, Mexico. Total population covered= 1233.

Nama, Namibia. Total population covered= 204.

Nauru, Nauru. Total population covered= 6.

Ndau, Zimbabwe. Total population covered= 436.

Ndebele, Zimbabwe. Total population covered= 1636.

Ndjuka, Suriname. Total population covered= 18.

Nepali, Bhutan, Nepal. Total population covered= 11074.

Newari, Nepal. Total population covered= 844.

Ngambai, Chad. Total population covered= 719.

Ngumba, Equatorial Guinea. Total population covered= 8.

Norwegian, Norway. Total population covered= 4273.

Nuer, Sudan. Total population covered= 1372.

Nung, Vietnam. Total population covered= 701.

Nupe, Nigeria. Total population covered= 1065.

Nyakyusa, Tanzania. Total population covered= 863.

Nyamwezi, Tanzania. Total population covered= 1151.

Nyaneka, Angola. Total population covered= 514.

Nyanja, Zimbabwe, Zambia. Total population covered= 1609.

Nyankole, Uganda. Total population covered= 1541.

Nyoro, Uganda. Total population covered= 1156.

Nzema, Ghana. Total population covered= 329.

Oriya, India. Total population covered= 32278.

Oromo, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 14290.

Otomi, Mexico. Total population covered= 279.

Ovimbundu, Angola. Total population covered= 3806.

Pampangan, Philippines. Total population covered= 1863.

Pangasinan, Philippines. Total population covered= 1198.

Papel, Guinea-Bissau. Total population covered= 72.

Papiamentu, Aruba, Netherlands Antilles. Total population covered= 210.

Papuan, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea. Total population covered= 3073.

Parauk, Burma. Total population covered= 446.

Pashayi, Afghanistan. Total population covered= 192.

Pashto, United Arab Emirates, Afghanistan, Pakistan. Total population covered= 26702.

Phu Thai, Laos. Total population covered= 136.

Pidgin, Papua New Guinea. Total population covered= 83.

Pohnpeian, Micronesia Federation. Total population covered= 20.

Polish, Czech Republic, Belarus, Canada, Lithuania, United States, Poland. Total population covered= 39021.

Polish Official, Poland. Total population covered= 38511.

Portuguese, Macau, Paraguay, Canada, United States, France, Portugal, Brazil. Total population covered= 162874.

Portuguese Official, Sao Tome E Principe, Cape Verde, Macau, Guinea-Bissau, Portugal, Angola, Mozambique, Brazil. Total population covered= 194291.

Provencal, Monaco, Italy, France. Total population covered= 1957.

Punjabi, Canada, India, Pakistan. Total population covered= 84227.

Quechua, Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru. Total population covered= 9890.

Quiche, Guatemala. Total population covered= 1301.

Reunionnais, Reunion. Total population covered= 552.

Rhaetian, Italy. Total population covered= 578.

Rif, Algeria, Morocco. Total population covered= 1620.

Romanche Official, Switzerland. Total population covered= 6855.

Romani, Romania, Bulgaria. Total population covered= 502.

Romanian, Hungary, Israel, Romania. Total population covered= 20470.

Romansch, Switzerland. Total population covered= 55.

Rotuman, Fiji. Total population covered= 7.

Rundi, Burundi. Total population covered= 5804.

Russian, Canada, Armenia, Israel, Lithuania, Estonia, Turkmenistan, Georgia, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Latvia, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Russia. Total population covered= 167543.

Russian Official, Russia. Total population covered= 149088.

Rwandan, Uganda, Rwanda. Total population covered= 8934.

Saho-Afar, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 1059.

Samoan, American Samoa, Western Samoa. Total population covered= 266.

Sango, Central African Republic. Total population covered= 229.

Santali, India. Total population covered= 8966.

Saramaccan, Suriname. Total population covered= 18.

Sarchagpakha, Bhutan. Total population covered= 411.

Sardinian, Italy. Total population covered= 1562.

Sea Dayak, Malaysia. Total population covered= 385.

Sena, Mozambique. Total population covered= 1596.

Senoufo, Burkina Faso, Mali. Total population covered= 1499.

Serbo-Croate Official, Bosnia and Hercgovina, Croatia, Serbia & Montenegro. Total population covered= 19732.

Serbo-Croatian, Macedonia, Canada, Slovenia, Bosnia and Hercgovina, Croatia, Serbia & Montenegro. Total population covered= 19260.

Serer, Senegal. Total population covered= 1269.

Shan, Burma. Total population covered= 3571.

Sherbro, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 135.

Sherpa, Nepal. Total population covered= 190.

Shilh, Morocco. Total population covered= 4043.

Shona, Botswana, Mozambique, Zimbabwe. Total population covered= 7757.

Sidamo, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 1588.

Sindhi, Pakistan. Total population covered= 15118.

Sinhalese Official, Sri Lanka. Total population covered= 17911.

Sira-Punu, Gabon. Total population covered= 240.

Siraiki, Pakistan. Total population covered= 12555.

Slovak, Hungary, Canada, Czech Republic, Slovakia. Total population covered= 6440.

Slovenian, Slovenia. Total population covered= 1784.

Somali, United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Ethiopia, Somalia. Total population covered= 11779.

Songhai, Mali. Total population covered= 608.

Soninke, Mauritania, Senegal, Mali. Total population covered= 1136.

Sonsorolese, Pacific Islands Trust. Total population covered= 7.

Sotho North, South Africa. Total population covered= 3166.

Sotho South, Lesotho, South Africa. Total population covered= 4355.

Spanish, Virgin Islands US, Gibraltar, Andorra, Belize, Canada, Switzerland, Paraguay, Panama, Bolivia, Uruguay, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Cuba, Chile, Peru, United States, Venezuela, Spain, Argentina, Colombia, Mexico. Total population covered= 300958.

Spanish Official, Equatorial Guinea, Panama, Uruguay, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, El Salvador, Honduras, Dominican Republic, Bolivia, Guatemala, Cuba, Ecuador, Chile, Venezuela, Peru, Argentina, Colombia, Spain, Mexico. Total population covered= 334763.

Sranan, Suriname. Total population covered= 145.

Subiya, Namibia. Total population covered= 47.

Sukuma, Tanzania. Total population covered= 3741.

Sundanese, Indonesia. Total population covered= 29194.

Susu, Sierra Leone, Guinea. Total population covered= 765.

Swahili, Oman, Mayotte, Somalia, Kenya, Mozambique, Zaire. Total population covered= 3067.

Swahili Comorian, Comoros. Total population covered= 615.

Swati, South Africa. Total population covered= 791.

Swazi, Swaziland. Total population covered= 744.

Swedish, Finland, Sweden. Total population covered= 8365.

Tagalog, Guam, Canada, United Arab Emirates, United States, Philippines. Total population covered= 20282.

Tahitian, Pitcairn Islands, Norfolk Island, French Polynesia. Total population covered= 149.

Tai, Vietnam. Total population covered= 2102.

Taiwanese, Taiwan. Total population covered= 14352.

Tajik, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan. Total population covered= 4248.

Tamang, Nepal. Total population covered= 1161.

Tamasheg, Mali, Niger. Total population covered= 1043.

Tamazight, Algeria, Morocco. Total population covered= 5398.

Tamil, Mauritius, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, India. Total population covered= 65631.

Tatar, Uzbekistan, Russia. Total population covered= 5123.

Teda, Chad. Total population covered= 180.

Teke, Congo. Total population covered= 492.

Telugu, Mauritius, India. Total population covered= 73545.

Tem, Benin, Togo. Total population covered= 437.

Teso, Uganda. Total population covered= 1541.

Thai, Thailand. Total population covered= 23306.

Tharu, Nepal. Total population covered= 907.

Themne, Sierra Leone. Total population covered= 1352.

Tibeto-Burman, Burma. Total population covered= 2232.

Tigre, Ethiopia, Eritrea. Total population covered= 1922.

Tigrinya, Eritrea, Ethiopia. Total population covered= 9150.

Tiv, Nigeria. Total population covered= 3196.

To-Abaita, Solomon Islands. Total population covered= 23.

Tokelauan, Tokelau. Total population covered= 1.

Toma, Guinea. Total population covered= 189.

Tonga, Zambia. Total population covered= 1064.

Tongan, Tonga. Total population covered= 94.

Trukese, Micronesia Federation. Total population covered= 40.

Tsonga, South Africa, Mozambique. Total population covered= 5018.

Tswana, Botswana, South Africa. Total population covered= 4175.

Tuamotuan, French Polynesia. Total population covered= 19.

Tuareg, Libya. Total population covered= 152.

Tukolor, Gambia, Mauritania, Sierra Leone, Senegal. Total population covered= 2006.

Tumbuka, Tanzania, Malawi. Total population covered= 1827.

Turkish, Switzerland, Macedonia, Greece, Cyprus, Iraq, Bulgaria, Germany Turkey. Total population covered= 56537.

Turkish Official, Cyprus, Turkey. Total population covered= 60320.

Turkmen, Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, Turkmenistan. Total population covered= 4553.

Tuvaluan, Nauru, Tuvalu. Total population covered= 12.

Tuvin, Mongolia. Total population covered= 23.

Tzeltal, Mexico. Total population covered= 261.

Tzotzil, Mexico. Total population covered= 180.

Ukrainian, Estonia, Lithuania, Czech Republic, Kyrgyzstan, Belarus, Canada, Poland, Moldova, Kazakhstan, Russia, Ukraine. Total population covered= 37852.

Urdu, Mauritius, Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, Pakistan, India. Total population covered= 56478.

Urdu Official, Pakistan. Total population covered= 128117.

Uzbek, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan. Total population covered= 18862.

Venda, South Africa. Total population covered= 791.

Vietnamese, Canada, Cambodia, United States, Vietnam. Total population covered= 63971.

Voltaic, Ivory Coast. Total population covered= 2144.

Waci-Gbe, Togo. Total population covered= 391.

Wallisian, Wallis and Futuna, New Caledonia. Total population covered= 26.